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��ࡱ�>�� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������u �r��bjbj�n�n2���a��a�w �������""������������8�|u$�6pl���������o�o�o�o�o�o�o$�q�xtf�o�������o����4�o����.�����o���o���������q0�������4��op06p��t/:�t��0�t��l����������o�oit���6p�������������������������������������������������������������������������t���������"q s: world development volume 149, issue 1, january 2022 1. title: south-south cooperation and the re-politicization of development in health authors: helena de moraes achcar. abstract: brazil�s south-south cooperation (ssc) has been accused of using a depoliticizing language of similarity and horizontality that hid structural asymmetries between very divergent realities. focusing on a ssc project in health between brazil and mozambique, the mozambican pharmaceutical ltd. (smm), this article seeks to understand whether ssc can in fact re-politicize development. drawing on a poststructuralist approach to discourse, i see re-politicization as challenging views of development in line with foreign aid (privatization in this context) and the enactment of initiatives in line with ssc principles (state-ownership). i explore the political negotiations and conflict around the implementation of the smm and argue that while initially the language of horizontality masked structural differences between brazil and mozambique, it was later mobilized to challenge mozambique�s desire to privatize the smm. a compromise between stakeholders allowed the smm to be majority state-owned, in what i say represented some degree of structural transformation. my analysis shows that development principles are neither universal (a criticism long addressed at foreign aid) nor do they have a single effect. the implementation of ssc projects that aim to effect structural transformation on highly divergent contexts will be subject to contestation, negotiation and accommodation by stakeholders, and the strategic employment of principles. the article suggests that ssc would require a more frequent engagement between partners so that ssc norms become naturalized. more broadly, it echoes part of the ssc literature that calls for a focus on development encounters, political dynamics and local constructions of reality rather than generic policy statements or principles. 2. title: passive versus active service delivery: comparing the effects of two parenting interventions on early cognitive development in rural china authors: sean sylvia, renfu luo, jingdong zhong, sarah-eve dill, scott rozelle. abstract: we present the results of a cluster-randomized controlled trial that evaluates the effects of a free, center-based parenting intervention on early cognitive development and parenting practices in 100 rural villages in china. we then compare these effects to a previous trial of a home-based intervention conducted in the same region, using the same parenting curriculum and public service system, accounting for potential differences between the studies. we find that the center-based intervention did not have a significant impact on child development outcomes, but did lead to increases in the material investments, time investments, and parenting skills of caregivers. the average impact of the center-based intervention on child skills and investments in children was significantly smaller than the home-visiting intervention. analysis of the possible mechanisms suggests that the difference in effects was driven primarily by different patterns of selection into program participation. 3. title: land formalization � the new magic bullet in counternarcotics? a case study of coca cultivation and tenure (in)formality from colombia authors: frances thomson, monica parada-hern�ndez, camilo acero. abstract: both policymakers and scholars have suggested that informal land tenure contributes to the perpetuation of illicit drug crop cultivation and, conversely, that land formalization programs serve counternarcotics aims. this article examines some of the key causal mechanisms said to underlie the posited relationship between land tenure (in)formality and the cultivation of crops used for illicit drug production. our analysis is grounded in the context of puerto as�s, colombia � one of the most important coca-producing municipalities in a country that produces the majority of the world�s cocaine. the case study is based on extensive fieldwork in puerto as�s, including in-depth interviews with peasants who cultivate(d) coca, community leaders and local officials. we found: (i) that informal and semiformal institutions provide a basic level of land tenure security for both those with and without state-recognized property titles; (ii) that peasants invest considerable amounts of money and labor in their farms and community infrastructures, despite lacking formal land titles; (iii) that coca cultivation itself is a comparatively costly investment, with eighteen months minimum before payback; (iv) that peasants� access to credit is not conditioned on them having a formal land title; (v) that bank loans do not make people less dependent on coca cultivation; and that (vi) farmers find it difficult to survive with legal livelihoods and thus permanently exit the coca economy for a long list of reasons, which are not addressed via land titling and registration programs. these findings are contrary to popular policy narratives. we conclude that formal titles are an important tool for colombian peasant farmers to defend their land against powerful external actors but will not necessarily serve the purposes commonly presented in the literature on illicit drugs. 4. title: time use of youth during a pandemic: evidence from mexico authors: cynthia boruchowicz, susan w. parker, lindsay robbins. abstract: studying how the pandemic affects the education and work of adolescents is a critical question with long lasting implications for well-being of the next generation, particularly in the developing world. the covid-19 pandemic by mid-march 2020 had led to the closing of most educational institutions in latin america and the caribbean, and the region has been one of the worst hit by the pandemic (sanmarchi et al., 2021). this paper uses the mexican national occupation and employment survey (enoe) to provide evidence on the pandemic�s effects on school and work of youth. we measure changes in the time use of adolescents comparing patterns just before the pandemic (january to march 2020) with those at the beginning of the following school year (september 2020), controlling for pre pandemic trends and potential seasonality. 5. title: the arithmetics and politics of domestic resource mobilization for poverty eradication authors: kimberly b. bolch, lidia ceriani, luis f. l�pez-calva. abstract: the addis ababa action agenda stresses the importance of effective resource mobilization and use of domestic resources to pursue sustainable development. the first sustainable development goal is to eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere by 2030. this paper explores how feasible it would be for developing countries to achieve the goal of eradicating poverty using only domestic resources, given their current tax base and political equilibrium. to answer this question, we propose two new metrics: a poverty eradication capacity index and a political influence concentration index. the first metric looks at the �arithmetics� of the issue, and uses an accounting approach to assess whether the existing tax base is rich enough to end poverty through monetary redistribution. the second metric looks at the �politics� of the issue, and approximates the degree to which political power is concentrated among the rich�following the notion that a high concentration of power would likely hinder the effective implementation of fiscal policies (in terms of both revenue collection and social spending). we calculate these two metrics using data for over 120 developing countries, and find that: (i) a large proportion of countries simply do not have an affluent enough tax base to finance their own poverty eradication through redistribution; (ii) countries with the same arithmetic capacity to mobilize resources for poverty eradication differ widely in terms of the political feasibility of such policies; and (iii) a higher capacity for poverty eradication and a lower concentration of political influence is associated with a higher collection of tax revenue as a share of gdp. these results suggest that countries facing binding arithmetic and/or political constraints may need to complement domestic resources with foreign aid in the short-term. such financial flows, however, should be designed to support the reduction of these constraints in the long-term. 6. title: forest governance in the amazon: favoring the emergence of local management systems authors: gabriel da silva medina, benno pokorny, bruce campbell. abstract: amazonian communities can greatly benefit from the forest resources they hold by setting up community-governed management systems that reflect their interests and capacities. but, to tap this potential, communities face three major challenges: to develop the systems, to enforce them, and to have their systems acknowledged by the wider society. to better understand under which circumstances communities succeed in mastering these three challenges, this study carried out in-depth research of four communities in the bolivian, brazilian, and peruvian amazon that demonstrated promising governance systems for the management of their natural resources. our analysis revealed that the studied communities started to develop regulatory systems when attempting to restrict access by external players to resources of local value. in circumstances of conflicts with external players, such as logging companies, commercial fishermen, or cattle ranchers, the communities became organized to enforce their systems. where the communities� representative organizations formed alliances with more powerful partners who could assist them, such as environmental organizations, they had their systems acknowledged. these findings suggest that autonomous relationships with external players (in contrast to dependent paternalistic relationships) can support communities� development. 7. title: educational and economic returns to cognitive ability in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review authors: sachiko ozawa, sarah k. laing, colleen r. higgins, tatenda t. yemeke, saad b. omer. abstract: there is growing interest to use early cognitive ability to predict schooling and employment outcomes in low- and middle-income countries (lmics). rather than using educational attainment and school enrollment as predictors of future economic growth or of improving an individual�s earning potential, mounting evidence suggests that cognitive ability may be a better predictor. the relationship between cognitive ability, education, and employment are essential to predict future development in lmics. we performed a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the evidence regarding the relationship between cognitive ability and educational outcomes, and between cognitive ability and economic outcomes across lmics. we searched peer-reviewed studies since 2000 that quantitatively measured these relationships. based on an initial search of 3,766 records, we identified 14 studies, including 8 studies that examined the cognition-education link and 8 studies that assessed cognition-employment returns in lmics. identified studies showed that higher cognitive ability increased the probability of school enrollment, academic achievement, and educational attainment across lmics. a meta-analysis of returns to wages from cognitive ability suggested that a standard deviation increase in cognitive test scores was associated with a 4.5% (95% ci 2.6%�9.6%) increase in wages. investments into early cognitive development could play a critical role in improving educational and economic outcomes in lmics. further research should focus particularly in low-income countries with the least evidence, and examine the impact on education and economic outcomes by cognitive domains to provide more robust evidence for policy makers to take action. 8. title: precision approaches to food insecurity: a spatial analysis of urban hunger and its contextual correlates in an african city authors: jac davis, nyasha magadzire, lisa-marie hemerijckx, tijs maes, julian may. abstract: although progress has been made in addressing hunger and poor diets in african cities, many urban residents still suffer from food insecurity, and there is large heterogeneity within cities. we examine spatial variations in hunger and dietary quality using a representative study of 983 households and 440 food retailers in a south african secondary city. substantial variation existed both between and within urban neighborhoods: high-income neighborhoods were not free of hunger, and low-income neighborhoods varied in diet quality according to individual characteristics. after controlling for income and gender, individual characteristics including access to consumer technologies for food transportation and storage, and informal food assistance from neighbors, were protective against hunger and poor quality diets. results suggest that meaningful variations exist at smaller geographic units than the city-level or neighborhood-level statistics typically reported in food security research. average socioeconomic status of neighborhoods may not be a sufficient proxy for their food insecurity, as poor areas vary substantially in their food access options and food choices. precision estimates of hunger and poor diets are needed to target interventions at those neighborhoods and those households with the greatest need, and to tailor interventions for the specific and different needs of urban residents within neighborhoods. 9. title: sdg interlinkage networks: analysis, robustness, sensitivities, and hierarchies authors: j.h.p. dawes. abstract: a growing literature considers the sustainable development goals (sdgs) as a interlinked network, connected by co-benefits and trade-offs between pairs of sdgs. such network descriptions naturally prompt important questions concerning the emergence and identification of system-level features. this paper develops mathematical techniques to address, quantitatively, the extent to which these interlinkage networks point to the likelihood of greater progress on some sdgs than on others, the sensitivity of the networks to the addition of new links (or the strengthening or weakening of existing ones), and the existence of implicit hierarchies within agenda 2030. the methods we discuss are applicable to any directed network but we interpret them here in the context of three interlinkage matrices produced from expert analysis and literature reviews. we use these as three specific examples to discuss the quantitative results that reveal similarities and differences between these networks, as well as to comment on the mathematical techniques themselves. in broad terms, our findings confirm those from other sources, such as the sustainable development solutions network: for example, that globally sdgs 12�15 are most at risk. perhaps of greater value is that analysis of the interlinkage networks is able to illuminate the underlying structural issues that lead to these systemic conclusions, such as the extent to which, at the whole-system level, the structure of sdg interlinkages favours some sdgs over others. the sensitivity analyses also suggest ways to quantify possible improvements to an sdg interlinkage network, since the sensitivity analyses are able to identify the modifications of the network that would best improve outcomes across the whole of agenda 2030. this therefore indicates possibilities for informing policy-making, since the interlinkage networks themselves are implicitly descriptions of the overlaps, co-benefits and trade-offs that are anticipated to be likely to arise from a set of existing or proposed future policy actions. 10. title: starting points matter: cash plus training effects on youth entrepreneurship, skills, and resilience during an epidemic authors: nina rosas, maria cecilia acevedo, samantha zaldivar. abstract: this paper examines the impact of a �cash plus� intervention on youth entrepreneurship and skills formation during the ebola crisis in sierra leone, using evidence from a randomized control trial. the intervention combined a regular stream of modest cash injections with training in either technical skills, business skills, or a combination of these two types of training. the results suggest that such interventions can build resilience to aggregate shocks by increasing employment and entrepreneurship, building cognitive and non-cognitive skills, and protecting household consumption and investments. however, results are heterogeneous. youth with higher initial noncognitive skills experienced positive labor market and entrepreneurship impacts, while weaker noncognitive ability, poorer youth upgraded skills more extensively, but channeled benefits into more consumption. the findings confirm the age-malleability of noncognitive skills and suggest that, in low-ability contexts, the sensitive years for skill investments may reach into early adulthood. they also highlight dynamic policy trade-offs in productivity gains and poverty reduction and indicate the relevance of noncognitive measures for targeting. 11. title: the finance-growth nexus in latin america and the caribbean: a meta-analytic perspective authors: ichiro iwasaki. abstract: this paper performs a meta-analysis of the effect of financial development and liberalization on macroeconomic growth in latin america and the caribbean using a total of 233 estimates collected from 21 previous works. meta-synthesis of the collected estimates demonstrates that it is probable that financial development and liberalization enhance economic growth in the region, and these policy measures have the potential to have a meaningful impact on the real economy. the synthesis results also reveal that the choice of financial variables significantly affects reported estimates in the literature. meta-regression analysis of literature heterogeneity and test for publication selection bias produce findings that are compatible with the synthesis results. the test results of publication selection bias also confirm that the existing literature contains genuine empirical evidence of the growth-promoting effect of finance in the region. 12. title: involuntary entrepreneurship � evidence from thai urban data authors: alexander karaivanov, tenzin yindok. abstract: we structurally estimate a model of occupational choice between wage work and entrepreneurship which allows for �involuntary entrepreneurship� (running a business out of necessity). involuntary entrepreneurs would earn higher income as workers but cannot access a wage job because of labor market frictions. using thai urban household data, we estimate the share of involuntary entrepreneurs as 19% of all businesses in our sample, with robustness runs yielding a range from as low as 7% to as high as 25%, depending on the data stratification and empirical specification. involuntary entrepreneurs earn significantly lower income (85% less on average) than the rest of the entrepreneurs and are more likely among low-wealth and low-schooling households. decomposing the estimated effects of the labor and credit market frictions, our results imply 18.7% excess (involuntary) entrepreneurs because of labor market frictions and 0.6% fewer entrepreneurs because of credit frictions, both relative to the unconstrained optimum. counterfactual policy evaluations show that involuntary entrepreneurship can only be reduced by directly targeting labor market frictions, with attention paid to the equilibrium effect on the market wage. 13. title: institutional factors, religiosity, and entrepreneurial activity: a quantitative examination across 85 countries authors: chao miao, johanna gast, rahma laouiti, walid nakara. abstract: given the ongoing debate on the relationship between institutions and entrepreneurship, this study aims to better understand the joint effects of two country-level formal institutions, government effectiveness and political freedom, and whether the informal institution of religiosity moderates this relationship. to achieve this goal, the current study used multiple datasets, including the global entrepreneurship monitor (gem), world governance indicators (wgis), and the win-gallup international global index of religiosity and atheism. the data cover 85 countries from 2010 to 2017. the results suggest that the rate of entrepreneurial activity across nations is shaped by the interplay between formal and informal institutions. 14. title: supermarket contracts, opportunity cost and trade-offs, and farm household welfare: panel data evidence from kenya authors: dennis o. ochieng, sylvester o. ogutu. abstract: while previous studies analyzed the welfare effects of smallholder participation in supermarket channels, little is known about the effects over time of supplying supermarkets on farm household incomes and diets, possible trade-offs, and opportunity costs of supermarkets on different income sources. we use panel data from smallholder vegetable farmers in kenya to address these research gaps. the results show that supermarket contracts increase overall income by 61% and the dietary diversity score of nutritious foods by 4%, on average. supermarket contracts also increase farm income without sacrificing income from other sources. in terms of participation dynamics, supermarket stayers and dropouts achieve overall income gains, but newcomers do not immediately benefit, due to their huge initial capital investment. supermarket participation is not a panacea for all smallholder marketing and livelihood challenges but benefits farmers who can meet contractual requirements. 15. title: domestic violence and workfare: an evaluation of india�s mgnregs authors: nayantara sarma. abstract: economic shocks are commonly linked with domestic violence. this paper looks at how india�s workfare program mediates the effect of income shocks on domestic violence. the mahatma gandhi national rural employment guarantee scheme (mgnregs) guarantees 100 days of employment to rural households and acts as a form of insurance. using the phased implementation of mgnregs across districts in india from 2006 to 2008, i employ a difference-in-differences strategy to show that the introduction of the mgnregs mitigates the effect of adverse rainfall shocks on officially reported domestic violence crimes at the district level by 8 to 22 percent. using complementary household data from the india human development survey, i explore the mediating effect of the mgnregs on rainfall shocks and possible increases in women�s empowerment. there are positive effects of participating in the scheme on women�s freedom of mobility but inconclusive evidence on women�s say in household decisions. 16. title: the roundtable on sustainable palm oil (rspo) and transnational hybrid governance in ecuador�s palm oil industry authors: adrienne johnson. abstract: the expansion of latin america�s palm oil frontier has spurred an explosion of interest in the social and environmental impacts of palm oil production. researchers have been particularly focused on the effectiveness of global sustainability certification standards in addressing induced vulnerabilities. only a small fraction of this research, however, analyzes how the local institutionalization of global standards has shaped national and sub-national structures of environmental governance, or regional conceptualizations of authority. it also fails to examine how the entrenchment of global standards has reworked local social relations inhering within formal and informal palm oil governing arrangements. to address these gaps, this paper draws on the case of the roundtable on sustainable palm oil (rspo) in ecuador to answer the following research questions: 1) how does the local introduction and institutionalization of rspo standards (re)shape national and sub-national environmental governance structures and relations? 2) how do rspo standards reconfigure long-standing notions of power and authority? drawing on extended fieldwork, the paper finds that the introduction of rspo standards has prompted three major shifts in domestic palm oil governance. these shifts are: 1) technicalization of community-company relations, 2) hybridization of governance coalitions 3) regionalization of governance efforts. taken together, these transformations point to an emerging transnational hybrid governance regime that blends public laws with private guidelines to reach national and international sustainability objectives. the regime has enabled the emergence of new palm governance authorities in the sector yet at the same time, it has reinscribed the uneven power relations of palm oil governance. the study concludes that future research and policy efforts must go beyond simply evaluating rspo standards in local spaces, and instead aim to improve the social relations that exist within agro-commodity chains in order to make the governance of sustainable palm oil more socially-inclusive and just. 17. title: the �sustainable public health index�: what if public health and sustainable development are compatible? authors: miguel alves pereira, rui cunha marques. abstract: nowadays, public health and sustainable development go hand in hand towards the renovated perception of the former. indeed, �ensuring healthy lives and promoting the well-being for all at all ages�, which established one of the united nations (un) sustainable development goals (sdgs), seeks to ensure that this conception is not only reinforced, but also that saving lives takes into account the physical, mental, and social well-being of populations whose �development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs�. accordingly, it is useful to interpret and convey information pertaining to this multidimensional concept in a way that encapsulates all its facets. since this can be achieved through a composite indicator (ci), we propose a sustainable public health index framework, based on the 13 targets of the un�s sdg 3 between 2016 and 2020. for this reason, using the popular ci-generating �benefit-of-the-doubt� approach while considering desirable and undesirable indicators, we apply this framework to 181 world health organization member states. we show that, from 2016 to 2020, less than 28% of them remained efficient and the european region clearly dominated the remaining regions, which tended to decrease their performance, on average. finally, we also reveal the global efforts towards improving the proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel and the density of medical doctors per 10,000 population, and the failure in achieving an acceptable neonatal mortality rate, under-five mortality rate, and a number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases. 18. title: the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the poor: insights from the hrishipara diaries authors: risto r�nkk�, stuart rutherford, kunal sen. abstract: we examine the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the livelihoods of the poor in a semi-rural setting in bangladesh. we use an unusually rich dataset which tracks the economic and financial transactions of sixty poor and very poor individuals and their families on a daily real-time basis for 12 months, from 1 october 2019 to 30 september 2020. these households for the past five years have volunteered as respondents in a �financial diaries� study known as the �hrishipara daily diaries project�. we use a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative case studies of five diarists with a quantitative analysis of the daily data extracted from the diaries. we document the behavioral responses to covid-19 by individual diarists, which shows the varied experiences of the poor during the pandemic. further, we find that the pandemic had significant negative effects on the livelihoods of the poor in our study, with financial inflows and outflows, incomes and household expenditures much below pre-pandemic levels in the pandemic period. government lockdowns in april and may 2020 led to a sharp decline in incomes and household expenditures. while incomes and expenditures recovered in the post-lockdown period, they remained below pre-pandemic levels. financial transactions such as borrowing, saving withdrawals and exchange of monetary gifts came to a standstill in the lockdown period, making it difficult for households to use conventional coping mechanisms in the face of a large unanticipated decline in incomes. exploring the coping mechanisms that households used to adjust to the declines in incomes and their lack of access to formal and informal sources of finance, we find that households drew down on their cash reserves at home as well as cutting down on non-food expenditures to protect their spending on food. 19. title: the role of agriculture in poverty escapes in kenya � developing a capabilities approach in the context of climate change authors: marta eichsteller, tim njagi, elvin nyukuri. abstract: rural poverty poses a significant developmental challenge in kenya. using a panel survey in rural kenya and qualitative material from focus groups and life history interviews from the regions of makueni and vihiga, we investigate the changing role of how agriculture and farming practices have contributed to sustained escapes from poverty since 2000. in this study we analyse environmental, social and personal structures that facilitate conversion of agricultural strategies that enable poverty escapes in the context of climate change. our study identifies that agriculture still forms an essential aspect of kenyan households� economic and social wellbeing. however, the study results indicate that links between accumulation of assets and poverty escapes are ambiguous, poor households find it problematic to convert agricultural strategies into a profit, and climate change shocks further exasperate these difficulties. we argue that constraints in conversion structures, such as limited infrastructure, and in conversion processes such as ongoing difficulties in land procurement and inheritance, unsustainable farming practices and continued lack of knowledge on climate-smart agriculture affect not only poverty escapes, but also the ability to 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